•  
  •  
 

Abstract

Background: This study examines the social construction of sexual orientation among adolescents, particularly non-heterosexual, in Daerah Khusus Ibukota (DKI) Jakarta, Indonesia. Currently, non-heterosexual adolescents tend to recognize their sexual attraction earlier than previous generations.

Methods: A mixed methods approach was used. We conducted in-depth interviews with foundations focused on HIV/AIDS management and groups with non-heterosexual orientations. For the quantitative portion, 267 adolescents (89 non-heterosexual and 178 heterosexual) completed a validated questionnaire. We conducted univariate and bivariate analyses examining gender distribution as well as the association between social construction factors and the formation of sexual orientation.

Results: Logistic regression identified key influences on adolescent sexual identity are pornography access, childhood gender nonconformity, peer influence, parenting style, and trauma. There was a significant association between these factors and sexual orientation, with parenting style emerging as the most influential (p < 0.001, OR = 14.442). The case (non-heterosexual) group experienced more negative parenting, trauma, and frequent pornography exposure but reported up to 80% lower peer influence than the control (heterosexual) group. Despite these differences, both groups demonstrated emotional stability; up to 35% identified as gender-conforming.

Conclusions: This study emphasizes the importance of targeted interventions to better understand and support adolescent sexual orientation development. It recommends collaborative efforts involving family upbringing and regular school assessments to promote adolescent sexual health. By addressing key contributing factors, including parenting patterns, peer influence, pornography exposure, and childhood gender nonconformity, this research aims to inform strategies for supporting adolescent development.

Keywords:Sexual orientation, Adolescents, Non-heterosexual, Heterosexual, Indonesia

References

[1] Damanik H, Manurung SS, Sagala DSP, Ritonga EP, Naibaho ENV, Siburian CH. The relationship between preventive efforts in adolescent sexual deviance and the risk of sexual deviance at Imelda High School Medan. J Ilm Keperawatan IMELDA 2023;9(2):173—8. https://doi.org/10.52943/jikeperawatan.v9i2.1498 [in Bahasa].

[2] Zaman AA, Sunarti E, Krisnatuti D. Adolescents’ sexuality: the role of parent and microsystem education of sexuality. Indigenous: Jurnal Ilmiah Psikologi 2024;9(2):150—69. https://doi.org/10.23917/indigenous.v9i2.4350.

[3] Central Bureau of Statistics. Health statistics profile 2023. Jakarta: Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS-Statistics Indonesia); 2023 [cited Jan 2025]. Available from: https://www.bps.go.id/id/publication/2023/12/20/feffe5519c812d560bb131ca/profil-statistik-kesehatan-2023.html [in Bahasa].

[4] Abidin AA. Sexual deviant behavior and prevention efforts in Jombang district. In: Proceedings of the national seminar & scientific meeting of the research network, IAI Darussalam, 21-22 January 2017. Banyuwangi, Indonesia: Institute Agama Islam Darussalam Banyuwangi; 2017. p. 545—63 [in Bahasa].

[5] Ministry of Health of the Republic of Indonesia. Report on the development of HIV/AIDS and STIs in Indonesia. 2019. South Jakarta City, Jakarta: Ministry of Health; 2019 [in Bahasa].

[6] Maulana A, Firdawati Firdawati, Hardisman H, Etriyel E, Yetti H, Abdiana A. Overview of social environmental risk factors among men who have sex with men in west sumatra. SENTRI J Ris Ilm 2024;3(10):4749—61 [in Bahasa].

[7] Putri TO, Selinaswati S. The ‘melela’ phenomenon among lesbians in relation to family in padang City. J Perspektif: J Kajian Sosiologi dan Pendidikan 2020;3(1):144—51. https://doi.org/10.24036/perspektif.v3i1.206 [in Bahasa].

[8] Meilan N, Maryanah Follona W. Adolescent reproductive health: implementation of PKPR in peer relationships. Malang, Indonesia: Wineka Media; 2019 [in Bahasa].

[9] Yosephine L. Indonesian psychihatrists label LGBT as mental disorders. Jkt Post 2016 Feb 24;45(2):5—9 [cited Jan 2025]. Available from: https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2016/02/24/indonesian-psychiatrists-label-lgbt-mental-disorders.html [in Bahasa].

[10] Reid G. Global Perspectives on LGBT People and Mental Health [cited Jan 2025]. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/supporting_resources/hrw_letter_to_ indonesia_moh_on_lgbt_final.pdf; 2016.

[11] Alhamdu A. Sexual orientation: factors, health perspectives, and religion. Jurnal Ilmu Agama UIN Raden Fatah 2015;16 (1):120—40. Available from: https://jurnal.radenfatah.ac.id/index.php/JIA/article/view/503 [in Bahasa].

[12] Ajayi IO, Olapegba PO, Uye EE. Parenting styles, sexual abuse, and self-esteem as predictors of sexual orientation among undergraduates. J Psikol Teor dan Terap 2025;16(1): 18—26. https://doi.org/10.26740/jptt.v16n01.p18-26.

[13] Austin SB, Jun HJ, Jackson B, Spiegelman D, Rich- Edwards J, Corliss HL, et al. Disparities in child abuse victimization in lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual women in the Nurses' Health Study II. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2008 May;17(4):597—606. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2007.0450.

[14] B Balsam KF, Rothblum ED, Beauchaine TP. Victimization over the life span: a comparison of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and heterosexual siblings. J Consult Clin Psychol 2005 Jun; 73(3):477—87. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.477.

[15] Corliss HL, Cochran SD, Mays VM. Reports of parental maltreatment during childhood in a United States population-based survey of homosexual, bisexual, and heterosexual adults. Child Abuse Negl 2002 Nov;26(11):1165—78. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0145-2134(02)00385-x.

[16] Roberts AL, Glymour MM, Koenen KC. Does maltreatment in childhood affect sexual orientation in adulthood? Arch Sex Behav 2013 Feb;42(2):161—71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-0021-9.

[17] Forestier JM Le, Hug AMO, Morgenroth T, Rosello- penaloza M. The influence of essentialist and social constructionist notions on perceptions of “realness”: implications for LGBTIQ + experiences. J Soc Issues 2024;11(4): 843—70. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12642.

[18] Eisenberg ME, Gower AL, Nic Rider G, McMorris BJ, Coleman E. At the intersection of sexual orientation and gender identity: variations in emotional distress and bullying experience in a large population-based sample of U.S. Adolescents. J LGBT Youth 2019;16(3):235—54. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361653.2019.1567435.

[19] Ussher JM. Unraveling the mystery of "the specificity of women' s sexual response and its relationship with sexual orientations’’: the social construction of sex and sexual identities. Arch Sex Behav 2017;46(5):1207—11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-0957-x.

[20] Sawyer SM, Azzopardi PS, Wickremarathne D, Patton GC. The age of adolescence. Lancet Child Adolesc Health 2018 Mar;2(3):223—8. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(18)30022-1.

[21] National Academies of Sciences. Engineering, and medicine; health and medicine division; division of behavioral and social sciences and education; board on children, youth, and families; committee on the neurobiological and socio- behavioral science of adolescent development and its applications. In: Backes EP, Bonnie RJ, editors. The promise of adolescence: realizing opportunity for all youth. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2019.

[22] Badan Kependudukan dan Keluarga Berencana Nasional [BKKBN]. Technical guidelines for the use of family planning operational assistance funds. Jakarta: BKKBN; 2024 [in Bahasa].

[23] American Psychological Association. Guidelines for psychological practice with transgender and gender nonconforming people. Am Psychol 2015 Dec;70(9):832—64. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039906.

[24] Katz-Wise SL, Rosario M, Tsappis M. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth and family acceptance. Pediatr Clin North Am 2016 Dec;63(6):1011—25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2016.07.005.

[25] Lantz SE, Kaur J, Ray S. Freud's developmental theory. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025.

[26] Carrey N. The two ericksons: forgotten concepts and what constitutes an appropriate professional knowledge base in psychiatry. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2010 Nov; 19(4):248.

[27] Ela EJ, Budnick J. Non-heterosexuality, relationships, and young women's contraceptive behavior. Demography 2017 Jun;54(3):887—909. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-017-0578-y.

[28] Baptiste-Roberts K, Oranuba E, Werts N, Edwards LV. Addressing health care disparities among sexual minorities. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 2017 Mar;44(1):71—80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ogc.2016.11.003.

[29] Khofipah S, Aidha Z, Susilawati S. Analysis of the Implementation of the Youth Care Health Services Program (PKPR) at the Pabatu Community Health Center UPTD. J Promot Prev 2025;8(3):479—89.

[30] Day JK, Fish JN, Grossman AH, Russell ST. Gay-straight alliances, inclusive policy, and school climate: LGBTQ youths' experiences of social support and bullying. J Res Adolesc 2020 Feb;30(Suppl 2):418—30. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12487.

[31] Santi S, Cheristina C. Adolescent behavior in utilizing the adolescent care health service program (pkpr) at the jumpandang baru community health center. PREPOTIF J Kesehat Masy 2020;4(2):293—303 [in Bahasa].

[32] Pratiwi T, Handayani S, Isnaen Y. Analysis of the implementation of the youth care health service program (PKPR) at the Palembang City Community Health Center. J Penelit Kesehat Suara Forikes 2018;9(3):196—203 [in Bahasa].

[33] Lwanga KS, Lemeshow S. Sample size determination in health studies: a practical manual. Geneva: WHO; 1991.

[34] Pecora LA, Hancock GI, Hooley M, Demmer DH, Attwood T, Mesibov GB, Stokes MA. Gender identity, sexual orientation and adverse sexual experiences in autistic females. Mol Autism 2020 Jul 11;11(1):57. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-020-00363-0.

[35] Akoglu H. User's guide to correlation coefficients. Turk J Emerg Med 2018 Aug 7;18(3):91—3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tjem.2018.08.001.

[36] Ayu S. The relationship between the intensity of accessing pornography and self-control with free sexual behavior in early adolescence. Riau, Indonesia: Universitas Islam Negeri Sultan Syarif Kasim Riau 2020;29(3):99—115 [in Bahasa].

[37] Sanz Vazquez M, Herrero M, Corral S, Cormenzana S, Martínez Pampliega A. The differential role of fathers” and mothers” parenting styles, as a function of the custody agreement: post-divorce family adjustment and children's symptomatology. Universitas Psychologica 2024;23(1). https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.upsy23.drfm.

[38] Kumalasari B, Siroj EY, Yunus HH. Father's parenting involvement and adolescent resilience in families with working spouses in Depok City. J Fam Sci 2023;8(2):108—25. https://doi.org/10.29244/jfs.vi.49804.

[39] Aji LM, Adamu NN, Kefas VA, Godwin A, Hassan CG. Sexual harassment. In: Sheriff DS, editor. Recent topics related to human sexual practices - sexual practices and sexual crimes. IntechOpen; 2024.

[40] Moore AA, Overstreet C, Kendler KS, Dick DM, Adkins A, Amstadter AB. Potentially traumatic events, personality, and risky sexual behavior in undergraduate college students. Psychol Trauma 2017 Jan;9(1):105—12. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000168.

[41] A Arumugam G, K RR, B VD, Vignesh NJ Sr, S M. A community-based cross-sectional study on awareness and acceptance of homosexuality in Coimbatore. Cureus 2024 Apr 29;16(4):e59315. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.59315.

[42] Tabaac AR, Haneuse S, Johns M, Tan ASL, Austin SB, Potter J, et al. Sexual and reproductive health information: disparities across sexual orientation groups in two cohorts of U.S. women. Sex Res Social Policy 2021 Sep;18(3):612—20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-020-00485-3.

[43] Perez-Albeniz A, Lucas-Molina B, Gutierrez A, Berges L, Ortuno-Sierra J, Fonseca-Pedrero E. Bullying, cyberbullying, and sexual orientation minority youths: increased prevalence and mental health implications. Int J Adolesc Youth 2025;30(1):2495878. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2025.2495878.

[44] Ochoa MK, Constantin K. Impacts of child sexual abuse: the mediating role of future orientation on academic outcomes. Child Abuse Negl 2023 Nov;145:106437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106437.

[45] Peҫi B. Peer influence and adolescent sexual behavior trajectories: links to sexual initation. Eur J Multidiscip Stud 2017;4(3):96—105. https://doi.org/10.26417/ejms.v4i3.p96-105.

[46] Subramanyam AA, Somaiya M, De Sousa A. Mental health and well-being in children and adolescents. Indian J Psychiatry 2024 Jan;66(Suppl 2):S304—19. https://doi.org/10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_624_23.

[47] Kar SK, Choudhury A, Singh AP. Understanding normal development of adolescent sexuality: A bumpy ride. J Hum Reprod Sci 2015 Apr-Jun;8(2):70—4. https://doi.org/10.4103/0974-1208.158594.

[48] Bragazzi NL, Converti M, Crapanzano A, Zerbetto R, Siri A, Khamisy-Farah R. Probing the genomic landscape of human sexuality: a critical systematic review of the literature. Front Genet 2023 Aug 24;14:1184758. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2023.1184758.

[49] Askaree DL, Safdar K, Fraooqui J, Umar H. Investigating the relationship between childhood trauma and hyper- independence among university students: from adversity to self- reliance. Res J Psychol 2025;3(2):290—307. https://doi.org/10.59075/rjs.v3i2.129.

[50] Cruz D, Lichten M, Berg K, George P. Developmental trauma: conceptual framework, associated risks and comorbidities, and evaluation and treatment. Front Psychiatr 2022 Jul 22;13: 800687. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.800687.

[51] Landry M, Turner M, Vyas A, Wood S. Social media and sexual behavior among adolescents: is there a link? JMIR Public Health Surveill 2017 May 19;3(2):e28. https://doi.org/10.2196/publichealth.7149.

[52] deMayo BE, Gallagher NM, Leshin RA, Olson KR. Stability and change in gender identity and sexual orientation across childhood and adolescence. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 2025 Aug;90(1—3):7—172. https://doi.org/10.1111/mono.12479.

[53] Morris AS, Ratliff EL, Cosgrove KT, Steinberg L. We know even more things: a decade review of parenting research. J Res Adolesc 2021 Dec;31(4):870—88. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12641.

Download

Share

COinS