Prevalence And Correlates Of Post-traumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD) Among The Military In A Low-income Country

Authors

Shehu Usman Ibrahim, Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Bayero University, Kano, NigeriaFollow
Mukadas Oyeniran Akindele, Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria; Lifestyle Diseases, Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, South AfricaFollow
Ushotanefe Useh, Life style Diseases, Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, South AfricaFollow

Abstract

Background: This study investigated the prevalence and correlates of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and its risks among the military in a low-income country.

Method: All participants answered self-administered questionnaires that measured PTSD, combat exposure, musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), perceived social support, and depression in addition to a socio-demographic form in this cross-sectional study. Chi-square test of independence and Fisher exact test were employed to compute PTSD prevalence and its difference among the services. Correlation and binary logistic regression were used to explore relationships and the impact of the predictor variables on PTSD.

Results: PTSD prevalence among participants on routine military duties was 12.2%. PTSD was significantly related to MSDs (Army, p=0.03; Navy, p=0.008; Air Force p=0.039), combat exposure and depression (r=0.36, p=0.001), but not with gender (Army p =0.683, Navy p= 0.448 and Air Force p=0.586), perceived support (r=-0.05, p=0.476) and years of service (r=0.05, p=0.407). Rank was only significantly associated with PTSD in the Army (p=0.023) and Air force (0.015). Combat exposure was the best predictor of PTSD with an odds ratio of 1.21.

Conclusion: This study provided evidence about the presence of PTSD among military personnel from a low-income country who were exposed to insurgency and terrorism. It revealed valuable information on the correlates of PTSD among the military personnel. This information can enhance the military’s operational effectiveness and influence the formulation of policies regarding PTSD by the Appropriate Superior Authorities (ASA) of the military.

Keywords: Prevalence, Post- traumatic Stress Disorders, Military

Recommended Citation

Ibrahim SU, Akindele MO, Useh U. Prevalence And Correlates Of Post-traumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD) Among The Military In A Low-income Country. J Health Res. 2023; 37(2):62-68. DOI: https://doi.org/10.56808/2586-940X.1015

References

[1] Duckers ML, Alisic E, Brewin CR. A vulnerability paradox in the cross-national prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder. Br J Psychiatry 2016;209(4):300-5.

[2] Xue C, Ge Y, Tang B, Liu Y, Kang P, Wang M, et al. A metaanalysis of risk factors for combat-related PTSD among military personnel and veterans. PLoS One 2015;10(3): e0120270. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0120270.

[3] Schnurr PP, Lunney CA, Sengupta A, Waelde LC. A descriptive analysis of PTSD chronicity in Vietnam veterans. J Trauma Stress 2003;16(6):545-53. PMID: 14690351.

[4] Kang HK, Natelson BH, Mahan CM, Lee KY, Murphy FM. Post-traumatic stress disorder and chronic fatigue syndromelike illness among Gulf War veterans: a population-based survey of 30,000 veterans. Am J Epidemiol 2003 Jan 15;157(2): 141-8. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwf187. PMID: 12522021.

[5] Richardson LK, Frueh BC, Acierno R. Prevalence estimates of combat-related PTSD: a critical review. Aust N Z J Psychiatr 2010;44(1):4-19. https://doi.org/10.3109/00048670903393597.

[6] Okulate GT, Jones OB. Post-traumatic stress disorder, survivor guilt and substance use–a study of hospitalised Nigerian army veterans. S Afr Med J 2006;96(2):144-6. PMID: 16532084.

[7] Obinna EJ, Chine BC, Nnedum OAU, Omonijo DO. Influence of traumatization and category of “Biafrane Nigerian” civil war veterans on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among war survivors. J Basic Appl Sci Res 2011;1(10):1480-3.

[8] Kish L. Survey sampling. New York: Willey; 1965. https:// doi.org/10.1002/bimj.19680100122.

[9] McCutchan PK, Freed MC, Low EC, Engel CC. Rescaling the post-traumatic stress disorder checklist for use in primary care. Mil Med 2016;181(9):1002-6. https://doi.org/10.7205/ MILMED-D-15-00444.

[10] Yarvis JS, Yoon E, Amenuke M, Simien-Turner S, Landers GD. Assessment of PTSD in older veterans: the posttraumatic stress disorder checklist: military version (PCL-M). Adv Soc Work 2012;13(1):185-202.

[11] Weathers F, Litz B, Herman D, Huska J, Keane T. Annual Meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. San Antonio, TX. 1993. The PTSD checklist: reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility.

[12] Wilkins KC, Lang AJ, Norman SB. Synthesis of the psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist (PCL) military, civilian, and specific versions. Depress Anxiety 2011;28(7): 596-606. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20837.

[13] Blanchard EB, Jones-Alexander J, Buckley TC, Forneris CA. Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist (PCL). Behav Res Ther 1996;34(8):669-73. PMID: 88700294.

[14] Keane TM, Fairbank JA, Caddell JM, Zimering RT, Taylor KL, Mora CA. Clinical evaluation of a measure to assess combat exposure. J Consult Clin Psychol 1989;1(1):153-5.

[15] Legault EP, Cantin V, Descarreaux M. Assessment of muscu- loskeletal symptoms and their impacts in the adolescent population: adaptation and validation of a questionnaire. BMC Pediatr 2014;14:173. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2431-14-173.

[16] Dawson AP, Steele EJ, Hodges PW, Stewart S. Development and test-retest reliability of an extended version of the Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire (NMQ-E): a screening instrument for musculoskeletal pain. J Pain 2009; 10(5):517-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2008.11.008.

[17] Wang YP, Gorenstein C. Psychometric properties of the Beck depression inventory-II: a comprehensive review. Br J Psychiatry 2013;35(4):416-31. https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446- 2012-1048.

[18] Jacobson IG, Donoho CJ, Crum-Cianflone NF, Maguen S. Longitudinal assessment of gender differences in the development of PTSD among US military personnel deployed in support of the operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. J Psychiatr Res 2015;68:30-6. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.05.015.

[19] Luxton DD, Skopp NA, Maguen S. Gender differences in depression and PTSD symptoms following combat exposure. Depress Anxiety 2010;b27(11):1027-33. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/da.20730.

[20] Iteke O, Bakare MO, Agomoh AO, Uwakwe R, Ju Onwukwe. Road traffic accidents and posttraumatic stress disorder in an orthopedic setting in South-Eastern Nigeria: a controlled study. Scand J Trauma Resuscitation Emerg Med 2011;19:39. https://doi.org/10.1186/1757-7241-19-39.

[21] Iversen AC, Fear NT, Ehlers A, Hacker Hughes J, Hull L, Earnshaw M, et al. Risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder amongst United Kingdom armed forces personnel. Psychol Med 2008;38(4):511-22. https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0033291708002778.

[22] Connell MA, Omole O, Subramaney U, Olorunju S. Posttraumatic stress disorder and resilience in veterans who served in the South African border war. Afr J Psychiatr 2013; 16(6):8-10. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajpsy.v16i6.55.

[23] McGeary CA, McGeary DD, Moreno J, Gatchel RJ. Military chronic musculoskeletal pain and psychiatry comorbidity: is better pain management the answer? Healthcare 2016;4(38). https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare4030038.

[24] Yurgil KA, Barkauskas DA, Vasterling JJ, Nievergelt CM, Larson GE, Schork NJ, et al. Association between traumatic brain injury and risk of posttraumatic stress disorder in active-duty Marines. JAMA Psychiatr 2014;71(2):149-57. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.3080.

[25] Saleh DA, James LA, Shedrach MC. The wounds of religious violence and terrorism in Nigeria: posttraumatic stress disorder. Int J Humanities Soc Stud 2016;4(1):209-14.

[26] Booth-Kewley S, Larson GE, Highfill-McRoy RM, Garland CF, Gaskin TA. Correlates of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in Marines back from war. J Trauma Stress 2010;23(1):69-77. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20485.