Parental Characteristics and Experience of Intimate Partner Parental Characteristics and Experience of Intimate Partner Violence Among Young Women in Ibadan, Nigeria Violence Among Young Women in Ibadan, Nigeria

Background : Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is a global public health problem. This study examined the in ﬂ uence of parental background on the experience of IPV by young women in Ibadan, Nigeria. Method : A cross-sectional survey was conducted in the ﬁ ve Local Government Areas of Ibadan metropolis. One thousand and ﬁ fty young women aged between 18 and 24 years were selected using a multistage sampling method to participate in the study. Data was collected using a 28-item semi-structured questionnaire. The independent variables were the parents ' education, marital status, occupation, and mother ' s experience of victimization. The dependent variable was previous experience of physical, sexual, and psychological IPV. A Chi-square test and binary logistic regression were used to test for association. The level of signi ﬁ cance was set at 5%. Results : The majority of young women had experienced psychological IPV (55.0%). Two-thirds of fathers (61.4%) and mothers (62.5%) had completed at least secondary education. More than half (59.4%) of the parents were married. Par-ents ' marital status was signi ﬁ cantly associated with experience of sexual and psychological IPV. While the father ' s employment signi ﬁ cantly increased experience of sexual IPV, the mother ' s employment reduced experience of sexual IPV. Abuse of respondent ' s mothers increased experience of psychological IPV. Conclusion : This study has provided information that parental characteristics such as father ' s employment and mother ' s experience of abuse have a signi ﬁ cant in ﬂ uence on a young woman ' s experience of IPV. Thus, intervention programs among young women should include parents.


Introduction
I ntimate Partner Violence (IPV) is a public health problem with diverse mental, sexual and socioeconomic repercussions for the victims [1].Like other non-communicable diseases, IPV contributes greatly to preventable morbidity and mortality statistics worldwide [2].Globally, one in every three ever-partnered women of reproductive age has experienced at least one form of IPV in their lifetime [1], showing the pervasiveness of the problem.
Research evidence has shown that the prevalence of IPV is higher among young women than older women in both high and low/middle income countries [3,4] Prevalence of IPV among adolescents and young women in Africa and sub-Saharan Africa has been estimated to be as high as 67.7% [5,6].The experience of IPV at a young age either as a victim or as a witness puts girls and young women at risk of experiencing more IPV in adulthood [7].The prevalence of IPV among adolescent and young women in Ibadan is as high as 45% [8].
According to the socio-ecological model proposed by Heise [9], IPV is a multidimensional phenomenon.The dimension to the study of IPV is an interplay of the individual, relationship, and sociocultural factors.A singular factor is not enough to predict victimization or perpetration of IPV.The first (individual) level is inherent personal factors that increase the likelihood of being a victim or perpetrator of violence.These factors include sex, age, level of education, income, substance use, witness of abuse, etc.The second (relationship) level examines close relationships e partners, friends and family member factors that may increase the likelihood of experiencing or perpetrating violence.An individual's relationships influence their behaviour and contribute to their experience in life.These relationship factors include male dominance in the family, alcohol/substance abuse, adherence to traditional gender roles, and level of education among others [9].
This study is based on the second layer of the socio-ecological model.This layer examines close relationships such as those with partners, family members, peers e that may influence the experience of IPV.The level of parental education often determines their socioeconomic status and attitude to life.It may also influence their belief and adherence to social norms, which could affect their children's lives.The quality of an individual's relationship with the family members, especially the mother, protects against IPV victimization and perpetration [10].Parents' beliefs and social orientation may dictate the child's views about life, level of exposure, as well as the kind of decision the child makes.The parents' primary relationship with the daughter, especially the mother-daughter bond is often characterized by a culture of silence that trivializes violent acts and makes women feel guilty after being abused.This secret feeling of shame linked with female sexuality that is unconsciously passed down to the daughter in the parentechild relationship impacts on a child's orientation and experience in life.
At the relationship level, several studies have focused on a partner's and not the parent's characteristics that may influence victimization of young women by their partners.Therefore, this study assessed the influence of parental characteristics e level of education, occupation, family structure, parental conflict on young women's experience of IPV in Ibadan, Oyo State.

Study area
The study was conducted in the five Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Ibadan metropolis.Ibadan is the capital of Oyo state, Nigeria, and the third largest metropolitan city in the country.The major residents in the city are the Yoruba ethnic group who are engaged in different artisanal, trading activities, and civil service.Even though an urban city, there are several traditional settlements within the city centre.
Ibadan metropolis has a total population of 1,343,147 based on the projected 2020 population estimate.Fifty-one percent Ibadan's population are female, and 20% are adolescents and young women [11].

Study design and sampling
This was a cross-sectional community-based household survey.The sample size was calculated using sample size formula for single proportions.Assuming IPV prevalence of 42.3% among young women in low-income communities in Ibadan [8], type-1 error of 5%, cluster effect of 2.0, and 10% non-response rate, we obtained a minimum sample size of 825.A total of 1050 young women were interviewed.The study participants were young women aged between 18 and 24 years, who were currently in a relationship with a male partner.
Respondents were selected using a multistage sampling method.From the list of 12 wards in each of the five LGAs, two wards each were selected by simple random sampling.Thereafter, two communities each were selected from each ward by simple random sampling.Households in selected communities were visited and one young woman was selected per household.A young woman was eligible to be selected if she had or currently was in a relationship for more than three months, resided in the selected community for at least six months, and gave consent to participate in the study.

Data collection and management
Data were collected with the use of a 28-item semi-structured interviewer-administered questionnaire adapted from the WHO Multi-Country Study on Women's Health and Life Events questionnaire.The questionnaire had three sections; (section A: socio-demographic characteristics of respondents; Section B: socio-demographic characteristics of parents; Section C: experience of IPV by young women).Interviewers (n ¼ 4) had completed their university degrees, were trained on how to collect unbiased data and how to maintain ethical conduct when researching on GBV using the WHO guideline of ethical conduct of violence research [12].Data were collected between October and December 2020.Interviews were conducted in a private space in the respondent's home.Data was captured through the use of Computer Assisted Personal Interview (CAPI).
Study variables: the outcome variable was the past-year prevalence of physical (yes/no), sexual (yes/no) and psychological (yes/no) IPV.The study assessed past-year prevalence of IPV rather than lifetime prevalence to reduce recall bias.Some of the young women were also in their first intimate relationship for less than one year.
These outcome variables were defined as Physical IPV -if respondent reported experience of any of the following from her partner in the last 12 months: being slapped, pushed, pulled hair, hit, punched or kicked, choked on purpose, or threatened to use, or actually used a knife or other weapon.Sexual IPV -if respondent partner has ever physically forced her to have sexual intercourse, or she has had sexual intercourse because of fear.
Psychological IPV -if respondent has ever been belittled or humiliated, insulted, intimidated, threatened, or personal belongings destroyed by partner.
Data were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0.Respondents, partners and parents' characteristics were summarised using frequency and percentages.A Chisquare test was used to test the association between the dependent and independent variables.Binary logistic regression was used to determine the predictors of experience of IPV among young women.The level of significance was set at 5%.

Ethical issue
Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the University of Ibadan/University College Hospital (UI/UCH) joint ethics review committee (UI/EC/ 20/0122).The study adhered to the WHO ethical consideration recommended for IPV research.Participation in the study was voluntary.Informed consent was obtained from each participant after ensuring that respondents understood the purpose of the research.The study ensured no names were collected and women who became traumatised or requested such support were referred to nongovernmental organisations for services that include psychological support, legal and medical care.

Results
A total of 1050 young women were interviewed.The mean age of respondents was 21.0 (SD 2.1 years), and the majority were in the 20e24 years (71.0%)age group.A total of 772 (73.5%) of the young women were educated to secondary level, while 15.6% had at least one child.Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents and parents are presented in Table 1.Six hundred and thirteen women (58.4%) were in a monogamous union.645 (61.4%) of the fathers had completed secondary education and above, while 656 (62.5%) of the mothers had completed secondary education and above.624 (59.4%) of the parents were reportedly married.349 (33.2%) of the fathers and 220 (21.0%) were artisan and employed respectively.The majority (75.3%) of the mothers were traders.315 (30.0%) mothers experienced IPV.Fig. 1  experienced sexual IPV and physical IPV respectively (see Table 2).

Parents' characteristics by IPV experience
The result of the association between parents' characteristics and each type of IPV e physical, sexual and psychological are presented in Table 3. Bivariate analysis revealed that the experience of physical IPV among respondents were polygamous family background, father's level of education, mother's level of education, parent's marital status, and father's occupation (p < 0.05).
Factors that were associated with experience of sexual IPV among respondents were father's level of education, mother's level of education, parent's marital status, father's occupation, and mother's occupation (p < 0.05).
Factors that were significantly associated with experience of psychological IPV were polygamous family background, parent's marital status, mother's occupation, and mother's experience of abuse (p < 0.05).

Predictors of IPV experience among respondents
For physical violence, young women whose parents were widowed were significantly more likely to experience physical IPV than those whose parents were married (AOR ¼ 1.5, p ¼ 0.028).
For sexual violence, a respondent whose father had at least completed his secondary education was less likely to experience physical IPV than those whose father had less than secondary education  (AOR ¼ 0.7, p ¼ 0.050).While the father's employment significantly increases experience of sexual IPV (AOR ¼ 1.5, p ¼ 0.049), mother's employment significantly reduced the experience of sexual IPV (AOR ¼ 0.4, p ¼ 0.016).
For psychological IPV, young women whose parents were separated/divorced were more likely to experience psychological IPV than other young women (AOR ¼ 1.4, p ¼ 0.069).Similarly, young women whose mothers were abused were more likely to experience psychological IPV (AOR ¼ 1.5, p ¼ 0.003) (Table 3).

Discussion
Intimate partner violence is a global and pervasive violation of human rights that affect women and girls of all ages.Intimate partner violence is prevalent in Nigeria, where patriarchy is a socio-cultural system that privileges males and enthrones masculine domination of women.African culture nurtures this pervasive and resilient system where the man/ husband is the head of the household/family and he controls productive resources, labour force, and reproductive capacities based on the notions of superiority and inferiority.This socio-cultural norm denies women equal rights with men, leaving women underserved, underprivileged and alienating them from educational and economic opportunities which predisposes women to the risk of IPV [13,14].
This study assessed IPV experience and the influence of parental characteristics on occurrence of IPV among young women in urban communities.Our study findings showed the pattern of IPV experience among the participants, the characteristics and socio-economic composition of the parents.
Our study showed that psychological IPV was the most prevalent form of IPV experienced by young women.Other studies have also reported higher prevalence of psychological IPV than other forms of IPV [15,16].It is noteworthy that the prevalence of psychological IPV is higher than the one reported in other studies.Psychological IPV is the most pervasive form of violence and more tolerated by women because it is the underpinning of all forms of abuse, leaves no physical evidence, and unfortunately, the consequences are similar to those of other forms of IPV.It is a phenomenon that is shaped and influenced by acceptable societal norms and factors of social culture [13,17].Higher levels of the father and mother's education reduced experience of physical and psychological IPV but not significantly.Parent's level of education has been reported to pose a risk to IPV victimization.Parent's education less than high school level increases risk of IPV.Father's level of education provides an estimation of the household income and socio-economic status of the family [18].Similarly, this can predict the educational attainment of the girl child because the father may selectively send the boy child to school in a situation where the family are of poor socioeconomic status and then marry off the girl child, sometimes for monetary gain.Girls and women with low levels of education have reduced chance of economic empowerment which has been linked with increased IPV experience which in turn culminates in a cycle of poverty and then IPV [16,19].
In addition, parents with low levels of education may support rigid traditional gender roles and hence, support their daughters' victimization by their partners.It is also possible that the father is a perpetrator and the mother has been a victim all her life, thus, they normalize violence and expose the children in such family to abuse, a documented risk factor for IPV victimization [20].
The father's employment increased the experience of physical and sexual IPV among young women, while the mother's employment reduced experience of sexual and psychological IPV.A father that is employed whether in the formal or informal sector may spend less time with the family leaving no room for family discussion or update as the case may be.It may also be that the daughter cannot approach such a father to report an erring partner.On the other hand, a mother that is employed in the formal sector is more likely to be better educated, exposed to information, and may exercise some form of economic control in the home.The mother may also be able to provide some measures to prevent victimization of the daughter such as good education and a social network.This already shows the imbalance in contribution to the family income which is an established risk factor for IPV [19].This may predispose young women to experience IPV in their own relationship, but also, because IPV victimization is sometimes intergenerational [21].
A mother's experience of abuse significantly increased the experience of psychological IPV by young women.This has been confirmed by other studies that witness parental violence as an established risk factor for IPV [22,23].The pathway shows that children who witness parental violence have most likely been abused by either or both parents.Secondly, the children may have grown up to accept abuse as a way to resolve conflict, and thus normalize it in their own relationships.In addition, such children lack emotional communication and support in the family relationship as a result of the life crises.Hence, they grew up unable to adjust, or control their emotions and are constantly in need and searching for care and love [24].

Conclusion
Although the study was conducted in an urban area, the different socioeconomic strata in the urban area may have contributed to the level of IPV experience reported.For example, living in low-income communities constitutes risk for experience of IPV.There is a low level of education, low socioeconomic status, high level of adherence to traditional norms, and community acceptance of wife beating [25].These aforementioned factors coupled with parental ignorance about IPV place young women at risk of violence.
Despite the fact that the parental characteristics considered in this study are limited to the type of family structure, marital status, level of education, and occupation, it can still be deduced that parental characteristics influence a young woman's experience of violence in her relationship.This study has provided baseline information for a large-scale study to examine other parental factors such as age, level of income, religion, alcohol or substance use etc. that may influence experience of IPV among young women.

Recommendation
Ending IPV among young women requires intervention programmes that will inform and promote culture and values of family well-being, emphasizing respect for women and men's roles in the home.In addition, governments and stakeholders should develop and implement a policy on cultural awareness for social change.

Table 2 .
Parental characteristics by experience of IPV among young women in Ibadan.
a Significant values at p < 0.05.

Table 3 .
Predictors of IPV experience among young women in Ibadan.